Journal of Environmental and Sustainability Science

Drought is one of the most severe environmental hazards affecting water resources, agriculture, and ecosystems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change and reduced water inflows from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, resulting in increasing drought severity and land degradation. This study analyzes the spatiotemporal distribution of drought in Afaj District, Al-Qadisiyah Governorate, southern Iraq, using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery and remote sensing indices including the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Normalized Difference Drought Index (NDDI) for the years 2019 and 2025. Satellite data with 10 m spatial resolution were processed to assess vegetation health, surface moisture, and drought intensity. Statistical analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between NDVI and NDWI (r ≈ 0.69) and strong negative correlations between NDDI and both NDVI and NDWI, confirming the reliability of these indices for drought monitoring. Land cover analysis showed significant environmental changes, with bare land increasing by approximately 28% between 2019 and 2025, while vegetation and water-covered areas declined. The results indicate a substantial intensification of drought conditions, with areas experiencing moderate to high drought severity increasing from 48% in 2019 to 75% in 2025. These changes highlight the growing risks of desertification, agricultural decline, and ecosystem degradation in southern Iraq. The study demonstrates that integrated remote sensing indices provide an effective approach for monitoring drought dynamics and supporting sustainable water and land management strategies.

Drought is one of the most severe environmental hazards affecting water resources, agriculture, and ecosystems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change and declining water inflows from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, leading to increasing drought severity and land degradation. This study analyzes the spatiotemporal distribution of drought in Afaj District, Al-Qadisiyah Governorate, southern Iraq, using Sentinel-2 satellite data and remote sensing indices including the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Normalized Difference Drought Index (NDDI) for the years 2019 and 2025. Satellite images with 10 m spatial resolution were processed to evaluate vegetation health, surface moisture, and drought intensity. Statistical analysis showed strong positive correlation between NDVI and NDWI (r ≈ 0.69) and strong negative correlations between NDDI and both NDVI and NDWI, confirming the reliability of these indices for drought monitoring. Land cover analysis revealed significant environmental changes, with bare land expanding by about 28% between 2019 and 2025, while vegetation and water-covered areas declined. The results indicate a substantial intensification of drought conditions, with areas experiencing moderate to high drought severity increasing from 48% in 2019 to 75% in 2025. These findings highlight the growing risks of land degradation, agricultural decline, and ecosystem loss in southern Iraq. Remote sensing techniques using integrated spectral indices provide an effective tool for monitoring drought dynamics and supporting sustainable water and land management strategies.

The increasing global energy demand and environmental concerns associated with fossil fuels have intensified the search for sustainable and renewable energy sources. Biomass briquetting offers an effective method for converting low-density agricultural residues into compact, energy-rich solid fuels. This study focuses on the production and characterization of bio-briquettes made from agricultural wastes such as rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, cotton stalk, coconut shell, groundnut shell, banana peel, corn cobs, and sawdust. The biomass materials were dried, pulverized, and mixed with banana peel powder as a natural binder (5–15%). Briquettes were produced using a hydraulic press under pressures of 10–30 MPa and later air-dried for stability. Proximate analysis was conducted to evaluate key fuel properties including moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon, density, and calorific value. Results showed that the briquettes had an average moisture content of 10%, volatile matter of 72%, ash content of 6%, and fixed carbon of 12%. The calorific value averaged 15.42 MJ/kg, indicating good energy potential for domestic and small-scale industrial applications. These properties demonstrate that agricultural waste briquettes can serve as a viable and sustainable alternative to conventional fuels. The study highlights the potential of converting agricultural residues into clean and renewable energy sources, contributing to waste management, rural energy security, and reduced environmental pollution.

Efficient water management in agriculture is increasingly important due to groundwater depletion, climate variability, and rising food demand. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) improves water-use efficiency by delivering water directly to the crop root zone, while solar-powered pumps provide a sustainable energy source for irrigation in remote areas. This study evaluates the hydraulic performance of a solar-powered subsurface drip irrigation system using a boat-mounted floating pump installed along the Burhi Gandak River in Samastipur district, Bihar, India. Field observations were conducted during April–May 2022, with 45 discharge measurements taken from three laterals and five emitter positions at different times of the day. The average emitter discharge was 1.876 L/h with coefficients of variation below 10%, indicating excellent distribution uniformity. A gradual decrease in discharge was observed along the lateral length due to hydraulic head loss, while temporal variations remained minimal. The results demonstrate that the floating solar-powered SDI system provides reliable and uniform water distribution under field conditions. The system offers a sustainable irrigation solution for riverine and energy-deficient regions by combining renewable solar energy with efficient water delivery technology.

Drought-induced water stress is a major environmental factor affecting seed germination and plant establishment in tropical forest ecosystems. This study examined the effects of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced osmotic stress on the germination of seven tropical tree species: Hardwickia binnata, Butea monosperma, Acacia catechu, Acacia nilotica, Holoptelea integrifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, and Pithecellobium dulce. Seeds were subjected to three osmotic levels: 0 MPa (control), −0.5 MPa (moderate stress), and −1.0 MPa (severe stress). Germination experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions using a factorial completely randomized design. Results showed that increasing osmotic stress significantly reduced germination in all species. Under control conditions, Hardwickia binnata showed the highest germination (90%), while other species exhibited moderate germination rates. Under moderate stress (−0.5 MPa), germination declined substantially, though Hardwickia binnata and Butea monosperma maintained relatively higher tolerance. Severe stress (−1.0 MPa) almost completely inhibited germination in most species. Statistical analysis confirmed significant effects of species, treatment, and their interaction on germination response. The findings indicate strong species-specific differences in drought tolerance during the germination stage. Hardwickia binnata and Butea monosperma demonstrated greater resilience to water stress and may be suitable for afforestation and restoration programs in drought-prone regions.